Theoretical background

Mathematics Capital: From Bourdieu’s theory to equity in mathematics education

Pierre Bourdieu‘s theory of cultural and social capital (1986) provides a useful framework for conceptualizing the idea of Mathematics Capital (MCC). Bourdieu argues that the educational system, rather than being a neutral field, values and rewards the types of cultural capital possessed by dominant classes. This form of advantage results in the reproduction of social inequalities, as students from more privileged backgrounds are better equipped to succeed in education.

Although Bourdieu primarily focused on cultural capital related to the arts, his framework can be extended to understand the role of cultural capital in other fields, including science. The concept of science capital, developed as an extension of Bourdieu’s work, specifically focuses on the resources and dispositions related to science that an individual possesses (Archer et al., 2015). These resources include scientific knowledge and skills, social networks with people in the scientific field, and participation in science-related practices, such as visiting science museums or reading scientific magazines (Archer et al., 2015).

Research has shown that science capital is significantly associated with science aspirations and participation in science education (Archer et al., 2015; Moote et al., 2020). For example, students with high science capital are more likely to identify as “science people” and aspire to scientific careers (Archer et al., 2015). However, it has been observed that science capital is unevenly distributed among students, with boys, white students, and those from higher social backgrounds tending to have higher levels of science capital (Moote et al., 2020).

Mathematics Capital can be conceptualized as a subset of scientific capital (Black & Hernandez-Martinez, 2016) related to:

• Mathematical knowledge, skills, and dispositions that individuals acquire through their experiences and background, such as the ability to apply mathematical reasoning in everyday life or confidence in their own mathematical abilities.
• Social networks with people in the mathematical field, such as having family members or friends who work in math-related professions, who can provide access to information, guidance, and support.

Understanding Mathematics Capital is essential for addressing inequalities in participation and achievement in mathematics. Similar to science capital, Mathematics Capital can influence how students perceive their mathematical abilities, their future aspirations, and their likelihood of succeeding in math courses. For example, a student with high Mathematics Capital may feel more comfortable participating in math lessons, asking questions, and seeking challenges, whereas a student with lower Mathematics Capital may feel anxious or discouraged, potentially leading to lower engagement and achievement.

It is important to recognize that Mathematics Capital is not an innate or fixed trait. It can be developed and nurtured through targeted interventions and support from school, family, and society as a whole. Less conventional educational activities, such as those based on the use of memes, can engage students with diverse levels of mathematical capital, offering more inclusive and accessible learning methods. Educators and policymakers can play a key role in creating equitable and inclusive learning environments that provide all students with the resources and opportunities to develop their own Mathematics Capital.

Memes and Education: A New Language to Strengthen Participation, Learning, and Class Cohesion

An Internet meme is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as “an image, a video, a text, etc., that is quickly shared among internet users, often with modifications that make it humorous.” This type of content is particularly popular among younger generations: over 50% of Generation Z (born between 1997 and 2012) and 48% of Millennials (born between 1981 and 1996) report regularly sending and/or viewing memes, with an average of 20-30 per day (Tama-Rutigliano, 2019; Ypulse, 2019). Even the most recent Generation Alpha (born from 2013 onwards), growing up in a digital environment, is developing a strong connection to meme culture, which is already influencing the way this generation interacts with technology, information, and learning. The spread of memes began in the early 2000s with the advent of Web 2.0 platforms, which facilitated the creation and sharing of digital images through increasingly accessible editing tools (Börzsei, 2013). As discussed by Mattoni and Ceccobelli (2018), these changes can be understood within hybrid media systems, which combine traditional media logics with emerging ones, creating new dynamics of information production and dissemination.

Over time, memes have become a collective language and a privileged means of online social interaction, capable not only of conveying complex ideas in a concise and effective way but also of facilitating negotiation and the expression of shared identities, helping to create a sense of belonging to a community or culture. As Shifman (2014) observed, memes allow individuals to share personal perspectives while remaining embedded in a social communication flow: “they allow people to be themselves, together.” The intersection between digital communication and the construction of collective identities, also observed in political and cultural contexts (Mattoni & Ceccobelli, 2018), is reflected in the use of memes to strengthen group dynamics and the sense of community, a phenomenon particularly evident in online communities that exchange mathematical memes, i.e., memes whose content incorporates mathematical ideas (Bini et al., 2023). This ability to humorously combine common cultural references with personal reflections makes memes a particularly effective means of communicating values, norms, and belonging, both individually and collectively. They allow users to position themselves relative to others, recognize themselves in communities of interest, and strengthen a sense of shared identity, but they can also create barriers for those who do not belong to that particular cultural ecosystem (Marino, 2022).

An iconic example of a meme, analysed in detail in Bini (2021), is Spiderman pointing at Spiderman (Fig. 1), originated from a scene in the 1960s animated Spiderman series. This meme depicts two identical characters pointing at each other, symbolizing situations of misunderstanding, similarity, or mutual attribution of blame. The versatility of this meme has made it extremely popular, adaptable to various contexts due to the possibility of adding personalized text that changes its meaning, ranging from personal evaluations on social media (Fig. 2) to representations of mathematical concepts (Fig. 3). The Spiderman pointing at Spiderman meme is significant for our project: it inspired the creation of the logo (Fig. 4). In the logo, the two Spidermen represent ME (Mathematics) and MA (Meme), two dimensions of the project that interact and engage to analyse the potential of memes as educational cultural artifacts. Additionally, the acronym MEMA intentionally evokes the Italian verb “memare,” a neologism that means “to create memes”, and represents the core of the project, emphasizing the centrality of the creative and participatory activity related to memes.

In educational contexts, the use of memes is progressively becoming an opportunity to make teaching activities more fun, engaging, and accessible. Several studies have explored the impact of memes on learning processes, highlighting positive effects on students’ interest in the subjects covered and their motivation. For example, memes have been successfully integrated into fields such as medicine, mathematics, and accounting, with results showing greater student participation and engagement (Abou-El-Sood, 2024; Kayali & Altuntas, 2021; Mutua & Mwangi, 2023; Shahbaz et al., 2024; Sharif et al., 2024). However, the results of the impact of memes on academic performance are mixed. In some cases, students have shown significant improvements in participation (Bini et al., 2021) or in tests (Abou-El-Sood, 2024), while in others, such as in mathematics (Mutua & Mwangi, 2023), no substantial differences have been found. This suggests that the effect of memes may vary depending on the discipline or context.

So far, research on the educational use of memes has mainly focused on student performance, neglecting other relevant factors such as the perception of class cohesion. In educational contexts, a cohesive class is characterized by a high level of cooperation and collaboration among students, who work together to achieve common goals (Leo et al., 2022). Studies on cooperative learning processes have shown that collaborative contexts produce better results than individualistic or competitive ones, both academically and personally and socially (Gillies, 2016). The potential of memes to strengthen class cohesion is clearly highlighted in studies such as Bini (2022), which show how the use of memes can promote collaborative dynamics, fostering both a sense of belonging and academic success. Furthermore, the digital platforms that accompany the educational use of memes provide spaces for interaction that, if well designed, can amplify group cohesion and the sense of belonging (Gagliani Caputo et al., 2024; Mattoni & Ceccobelli, 2018).

Memes, as an informal and shared language, can facilitate interaction among students, contributing to the creation of a collective identity and strengthening the sense of belonging to the class group. Through the use of memes, teachers can promote more cohesive group dynamics, fostering a more inclusive and stimulating learning environment. In this sense, the introduction of memes into teaching activities not only represents an opportunity to make teaching methods more engaging but can also offer a tool to address complex challenges related to cohesion and integration in contemporary classrooms, contributing to strengthening collective identity and creating more inclusive educational contexts (Bini et al., 2021; Bini, 2022; 2024).